Open Standards Alliance

This article is devoted to one of the most difficult objects for literal translation, i.e. pun.

There is no full understanding of puns nature in linguistics yet and the consequences of it are observed in terminological variety. This stylistic device is often called “play on words”, “equivocality”, etc.

A translator rendering English pun into Russian should perform a super task: he must render a pun with a maximum literal accuracy if it really has an idea meaning in the work under translation. In cases where the pun is based on play on sounds, a translator can create his own play on sounds in order to reach the funny effect, at which the author aimed originally. Untranslated fun happens rather rarely, but even then a translator can miss translation of pun into Russian here and create it in another episode, where the author meant no play on words.

Unlike the translation of usual English text into Russian when its content (heroes, connotations, author’s style) must be transformed into another language form, in funs translation the form of original should be rendered as well. More than that, a translator rather often has to change the content to preserve the form of the fun. It happens sometimes as plane of expression is more important than plane of content while translating the literal work from any language into Russian. E.g. “Alice in Wonderland” by Luise Carroll presents a real teaching book for pun investigators: “Mine is a long and a sad tale! Said the Mouse… It is a long tail, certainly”, said Alice… “but why do you call it sad?” Here the pun is based on homonymy of words \”tale - tail\” where the leading element is tail. A lot of translators preserved this element of pun, but each in his own way. Thus, translator Solovyova uses the words of similar sounding: “хвастунья - хвастунья”. Demurova has translated it as \”прохвост - про хвост\”. Of course, the change of one component led to the changes in semantic and stylistic of the pun itself. But the thing is worth the effort. In cases when translating to Russian it is completely impossible to use at least one of the components of pun, a translator resorts to the total change of semantics. It happens when the plane of expression dominates the plane of content. Thus, in the same pun by Luise Carrolle the sentence “We called him Tortoise because he taught us” is translated into Russian by Demurova in the following way: “Мы звали его Спрутиком, потому что он всегда ходил с прутиком”.

So, one can come to conclusion: a precise English Russian translation of a pun (rendering of both expression and content) for which strives every translator can be reached only as an exception. As a rule, one should choose either a form of a meaning, and the decision depends on a set of premises, but first of all it depends on the context demands, and rather often on the context of the whole work.

By Terrance Kibiloski
Editor, Computer Times
http://computertimes.com

In the context of new work on distributed computation, Semantic Web Services (SWSs) go beyond current services by adding ontologies and formal knowledge to support description, discovery, negotiation, mediation and composition. This formal knowledge is often strongly related to informal materials. For example, a service for multi-media content delivery over broadband networks might incorporate conceptual indices of the content, so that a smart VCR (such as next generation TiVO) can reason about programmes to suggest to its owner. Alternatively, a service for B2B catalogue publication has to translate between existing semi-structured catalogues and the more formal catalogues required for SWS purposes. To make these types of services cost-effective we need automatic knowledge harvesting from all forms of content that contain natural language text or spoken data.

Other services do not have this close connection with informal content, or will be created from scratch using Semantic Web authoring tools. For example, printing or compute cycle or storage services. In these cases the opposite need is present: to document services for the human reader using natural language generation.

Тренинги, психологические тесты

Bjarne Stroustrup developed C++ (originally named “C with Classes”) in 1983 at Bell Labs as an enhancement to the C programming language. Enhancements started with the addition of classes, followed by, among other features, virtual functions, operator overloading, multiple inheritance, templates, and exception handling. The C++ programming language standard was ratified in 1998 as ISO/IEC 14882:1998, the current version of which is the 2003 version, ISO/IEC 14882:2003. A new version of the standard (known informally as C++0x) is being developed.

Stroustrup began work on C with Classes in 1979. The idea of creating a new language originated from Stroustrup’s experience in programming for his Ph.D. thesis. Stroustrup found that Simula had features that were very helpful for large software development, but the language was too slow for practical use, while BCPL was fast but too low-level and unsuitable for large software development. When Stroustrup started working in Bell Labs, he had the problem of analyzing the UNIX kernel with respect to distributed computing. Remembering his Ph.D. experience, Stroustrup set out to enhance the C language with Simula-like features. C was chosen because it is general-purpose, fast, and portable. Besides C and Simula, some other languages which inspired him were ALGOL 68, Ada, CLU and ML. At first, the class, derived class, strong type checking, inlining, and default argument features were added to C via Cfront. The first commercial release occurred in October 1985.

In 1983, the name of the language was changed from C with Classes to C++. New features were added including virtual functions, function name and operator overloading, references, constants, user-controlled free-store memory control, improved type checking, and a new single-line comment style with two forward slashes (//). In 1985, the first edition of The C++ Programming Language was released, providing an important reference to the language, as there was not yet an official standard. In 1989, Release 2.0 of C++ was released. New features included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for the future standard. Late addition of features included templates, exceptions, namespaces, new casts, and a Boolean type.

As the C++ language evolved, a standard library also evolved with it. The first addition to the C++ standard library was the stream I/O library which provided facilities to replace the traditional C functions such as printf and scanf. Later, among the most significant additions to the standard library, was the Standard Template Library.

After years of work, a joint ANSI-ISO committee standardized C++ in 1998 (ISO/IEC 14882:1998). For some years after the official release of the standard in 1998, the committee processed defect reports, and published a corrected version of the C++ standard in 2003. In 2005, a technical report, called the “Library Technical Report 1″ (often known as TR1 for short) was released. While not an official part of the standard, it gives a number of extensions to the standard library which are expected to be included in the next version of C++. Support for TR1 is growing in almost all currently maintained C++ compilers.

C++ is the ancestor of the new language - C# (see sharp) that Microsoft created and develope now.

You can read such great C++ and C# books: C++: The Complete Reference, Borland C++ Builder: The Complete Reference, C# Cookbook, 2nd Edition, etc at Codeidol.com labs.